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临床药师应具备的能力(美国临床药学院英文版)
Clinical Pharmacist Competencies
American College of Clinical Pharmacy
John M. Burke, Pharm.D., FCCP, William A. Miller, Pharm.D., FCCP, Anne P. Spencer, Pharm.D.,
Christopher W. Crank, Pharm.D., Laura Adkins, Pharm.D., Karen E. Bertch, Pharm.D., FCCP,
Dominic P. Ragucci, Pharm.D., William E. Smith, Pharm.D., Ph.D., and Amy W. Valley, Pharm.D.
Key Words: American College of Clinical Pharmacy, ACCP, clinical pharmacist,
competencies.
(Pharmacotherapy 2008;28(6):806–815)
The American College of Clinical Pharmacy
(ACCP) strategic plan summarizes its core
ideology, envisioned future, core purpose and
mission, and critical issues for the organization
and the profession.1 A longstanding critical issue
of the college’s plan is how ACCP can contribute
to ensuring an appropriately educated and skilled
clinical pharmacy workforce. Toward that end,
the college sought to publish a definition of
clinical pharmacy and establish the competencies
of a clinical pharmacist. Coincident with the
development of its definition of clinical
pharmacy,2 the ACCP Board of Regents charged a
task force to develop a complete set of competency
statements for the clinical pharmacist. These
statements were to be assessable and able to serve
as a foundation for the development of future
clinical pharmacist assessment tools.
In developing the competency statements for
this paper, the authors reviewed a number of
documents that addressed competencies within
the profession of pharmacy, including the
Accreditation Council for Pharmacy Education
(ACPE) Accreditation Standards for the Doctor of
Pharmacy degree, the American Association of
Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) Center for the
Advancement of Pharmaceutical Education
(CAPE) Education Outcomes, the American
Society of Health-System Pharmacists (ASHP)
and ACCP joint statement on learning objectives
for residency training in pharmacotherapy, and
the Board of Pharmaceutical Specialties content
outline for the Pharmacotherapy Specialty
Certification examination.3–10 Consensus
competencies of a clinical pharmacist were
identified. Draft competencies and associated
content knowledge components were then
prepared for review by the ACCP Board of Regents.
After extensive deliberations, the authors
identified key differences between the competencies
of a clinical pharmacist and today’s pharmacy
generalist.
Background
The ACCP’s vision for the profession is that
“pharmacists will be recognized and valued as
the preeminent health care professionals
responsible for the use of medicines in the
prevention and treatment of disease.”1 The
vision articulated by the Joint Commission of
Pharmacy Practitioners also calls for future
pharmacists to be responsible for rational
medication use.11, 12 Today, few pharmacists are
viewed by the public, government, payers of
health care, physicians, nurses and other health
professionals, or patients as the preeminent
health care professionals responsible for the use
of medicines in the prevention and treatment of
disease or rational medication use. However, the
profession has reason for optimism because a
growing number of clinical pharmacists and
clinical pharmacy specialists practicing in a
This document was written by the ACCP Task Force on
Clinical Pharmacist Competencies: John M. Burke,
Pharm.D., FCCP, BCPS, Chair; William A. Miller, Pharm.D.,
FCCP; Anne P. Spencer, Pharm.D., BCPS; Christopher W.
Crank, Pharm.D., BCPS; Laura Adkins, Pharm.D., BCPS;
Karen E. Bertch, Pharm.D., FCCP; Dominic P. Ragucci,
Pharm.D., BCPS; William E. Smith, Pharm.D.; and Amy W.
Valley, Pharm.D., BCOP. Approved by the American College
of Clinical Pharmacy Board of Regents on January 25, 2006.
Address reprint requests to the American College of
Clinical Pharmacy, 13000 West 87th Street Parkway, Suite
100, Lenexa, KS 66215-4530; e-mail: accp@accp.com, or
download from http://www.accp.com.
CLINICAL PHARMACIST COMPETENCIES ACCP
variety of institutional and ambulatory care
settings are viewed by other health professionals
as essential to ensuring rational medication use.
To achieve the ACCP’s vision, the profession
must ensure that there will be an adequate supply
of appropriately educated and skilled clinical
pharmacists practicing as both clinical pharmacy
generalists and specialists.13 Among the
strategies that will help address this issue is to
clearly define and promote the core competencies
of a clinical pharmacy practitioner. Hence, the
ACCP sought to publish a definition of clinical
pharmacy and the core competencies of a clinical
pharmacist.
The ACCP definition of clinical pharmacy
states that “clinical pharmacy is that area of
pharmacy concerned with the science and
practice of rational medication use.”2 The AACP,
through CAPE, has published educational
outcomes to serve as a “target towards which the
evolving pharmacy curriculum should be
aimed.”4 The ACPE doctor of pharmacy
accreditation curricular standards state that
“graduates must possess the basic knowledge,
skills and abilities to practice pharmacy,
independently, at the time of graduation.”3 This
implies that pharmacy graduates upon entry to
the profession are capable of independently
providing pharmacotherapy to patients. The
ASHP postgraduate year one (PGY1) residency
standard states that a “first-year residency
program enhances general competencies in
managing medication-use systems and supports
optimal medication therapy outcomes for
patients with a broad range of disease states.”14
The standard goes on to state that the purpose of
PGY1 residencies is to provide residents with
“the opportunity to accelerate their growth
beyond entry-level professional competence in
patient-centered care and in pharmacy operational
services and to further the development of
leadership skills…PGY1 residents acquire
substantial knowledge required for skillful
problem solving, refine their problem-solving
strategies, strengthen their professional values
and attitudes, and advance the growth of their
clinical judgment.” The postgraduate year two
(PGY2) standard states that PGY2 programs
“increase the resident’s depth of knowledge,
skills, attitudes, and abilities to raise the
resident’s level of expertise in medication therapy
management and clinical leadership” in a specific
and focused area of practice.15 After review of the
AACP, ACPE, and ASHP papers related to
pharmacy education and training, and the
competencies of today’s pharmacy graduates
upon entry into the profession, the authors
reached the following conclusions:
1. Competency lists and statements by each
organization are similar. All of the statements are
aimed at producing graduates of Pharm.D. or
residency programs who can independently
provide patient care and manage pharmacotherapy.
2. There are different competence levels that
reflect the amount of experience that a
pharmacy graduate has obtained in a doctor of
pharmacy degree program or from completion
of a PGY1 or PGY2 residency program. The
PGY1 residency programs are, in most cases,
aimed at producing pharmacy generalists. The
PGY2 programs are aimed at producing
pharmacy specialists or pharmacists who
practice in well-differentiated areas of clinical
pharmacy practice.
3. A key factor in developing competence is the
continual learning of new knowledge and the
enhancement of critical thinking and problemsolving
skills through practice. Repetition is
essential in the development of practice skills,
and thus the average levels of performance of
doctor of pharmacy and residency program
outcomes vary depending upon the amount of
patient care practice included in the program.
Upon entry into the profession, pharmacy
graduates are novices at managing pharmacotherapy.
Entry-level pharmacy graduates
usually gain some clinical pharmacy practice
experience during their educational programs.
This experience prepares them for entry into
the profession, but not as fully competent
clinical pharmacists.14, 15 Pharmacy graduates
are often able to competently perform basic
clinical activities such as routine patient
counseling, provision of drug information, and
targeted drug monitoring, but are not competent
at providing more complex clinical services.
Graduates of PGY1 residency programs are
minimally competent to provide general
clinical services (e.g., patient counseling,
routine drug monitoring) but often are not
prepared to independently assume responsibility
for the more complex decision making
involved in drug therapy selection and drug
therapy management. The PGY2 programs
allow residents to develop more in-depth
knowledge and skills by working in specialized
or differentiated areas of practice.15 Focusing
on specific patient care populations (e.g.,
critical care, oncology, and pediatrics) allows
graduates of PGY2 programs to enter practice
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PHARMACOTHERAPY Volume 28, Number 6, 2008
as entry-level clinical pharmacists. Through
continued clinical and additional learning
opportunities they become proficient clinicians
and eventually experts in a field of practice. In
summary, clinical pharmacists develop
proficiency through formal training and
practice experience.
4. The term clinical pharmacist is used in many
different contexts. Some pharmacy leaders
view all of today’s pharmacists as clinical
pharmacists. Although this viewpoint is
consistent with the future vision for the
profession, we find this to be an unrealistic
assessment of today’s practitioners. Similarly,
some educators maintain that all graduates of
doctor of pharmacy programs are prepared to
be clinical pharmacists. We feel that this is not
a realistic assessment of the outcomes of
today’s doctor of pharmacy programs. In
addition, we agree with this future vision for
the profession but feel that future manpower
needs will determine if today’s clinical
pharmacists actually become the pharmacy
generalists of the future.13
5. Reporting of the outcomes achieved by many
doctor of pharmacy and residency programs is
based predominantly on subjective data.
Current pharmacy licensure board examinations
evaluate only minimal practice competency.
Advancement of pharmacy education and
residency training could be enhanced by
educational research that focuses on objective
measures of clinical performance.
6. A number of important qualities define the
clinical pharmacist.2, 11 Although a majority of
today’s pharmacists perform some clinical
functions as part of their practice, they are not
necessarily clinical pharmacists, just as all
physicians who perform heart auscultations to
assess cardiac disease are not cardiologists.
The authors conclude that the following key
qualities define the clinical pharmacist:
• Clinical pharmacists have a broad scope and
depth of pharmacotherapy knowledge and
clinical skills. Knowledge is obtained and
clinical skills are developed through formal
education and training programs, including
doctor of pharmacy degree and postgraduate
residency programs, lifelong learning, and
continuing professional development.
Clinical pharmacist competence is achieved
when one possesses the knowledge, skills,
and attitudes required to provide direct care
to patients and to ensure rational medication
use. Although many pharmacists possess
some clinical knowledge or skills and
perform some clinical functions or tasks,
they must demonstrate comprehensive
clinical competence in order to be clinical
pharmacists.
• Clinical pharmacists spend the majority of
their time providing pharmacotherapy
independently or in collaboration with other
health care providers. Clinical pharmacists
must be engaged in the provision of patient
care for a sustained period of time to
become fully competent and proficient.
Although a number of pharmacists have
been educated and trained in some aspects
of clinical pharmacy, their current work
responsibilities may not be characterized as
practicing clinical pharmacy because they
are not fully engaged in providing direct
patient care and do not provide complex, indepth
clinical services. Functions associated
with medication order fulfillment continue
to prevent pharmacists from becoming fully
competent and proficient clinical pharmacists.
There are a number of other barriers that
continue to prevent pharmacists from
practicing as clinical pharmacists, such as
inadequate leadership and management,
failure to establish collaborative relationships
with physicians and nurses, lack of
reimbursement for clinical services, and
provider status. Time in practice beyond
pharmacy education and training is required
to allow one to gain experience with a wide
range of medical problems and therapies,
and to develop the necessary scope and
depth of knowledge and clinical skills
required to proficiently function as a clinical
pharmacist.
• Clinical pharmacists have completed
postgraduate residency training. Although
there are excellent clinical pharmacists in
practice today who have not completed
residency training, in most cases the preferred
method for acquiring the competencies
of a clinical pharmacist is through formal
residency training. This will become
increasingly important in the future.
Individuals who satisfactorily complete
PGY1 (and ideally PGY2) accredited
residencies that focus on clinical practice
should have sufficient knowledge and
practice experience to be competent clinical
pharmacists with sound clinical judgment.
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CLINICAL PHARMACIST COMPETENCIES ACCP
Although experience may be obtained
outside of a structured residency program,
any experience deemed to be equivalent to
residency training must allow for involvement
in the direct care of a sufficient
number of patients over a period of time
long enough to foster the development of
clinical judgment. Without the necessary
level of judgment, practitioners are limited
in their ability to make patient-specific
decisions and to know when a situation
extends beyond their limits of knowledge
and expertise.
• Clinical pharmacists maintain and further
develop competence through practice and
continued professional development.
Although many pharmacists assume some
direct patient-care responsibilities, they may
not have received comprehensive, systematic
clinical training. Achieving and maintaining
clinical competence is a responsibility of all
health care professionals.16 Although
pharmacists have been required to obtain
continuing education credit to maintain
their licensure, the value of this method of
education, which is often unfocused and
noncurricular, has been questioned.16, 17
The specific needs of the clinical pharmacist
are often not addressed through these noncurricular
programs. Hence, the profession
is evaluating alternate approaches of
continuing professional development to
meet these needs.17, 18
If clinical pharmacists are to effectively
evaluate their own abilities to carry out clinical
responsibilities, they must have a defined list of
competencies against which they can measure
performance. There are many competencies that
apply to all pharmacists. However, this document
addresses those competencies that must be
achieved by a clinical pharmacist.
Establishing specific clinical pharmacist
competencies is important. First, they describe
the abilities necessary to practice as a clinical
pharmacist. Second, they can be used by
practitioners to perform a self-assessment and
thereby determine what areas need to be
strengthened in order to enter clinical practice or
maintain clinical competence. Although these
competencies will undoubtedly evolve over time,
this paper describes the competencies of today’s
clinical pharmacist. Therefore, we provide below
a set of clinical pharmacist competencies for
contemporary clinical practice and a framework
in which to apply them.
Clinical Pharmacist Competencies
Specific clinical pharmacist competencies are
summarized in Appendix 1.6, 8–10 The following
sections describe each major competency area
and its respective rationale. We acknowledge
that some clinical pharmacists may function
primarily as researchers or administrators and
that these responsibilities may require a different
set of competencies. However, this paper focuses
only on those competencies required for clinical
practice.
Clinical Problem Solving, Judgment, and
Decision Making
A combination of comprehensive therapeutic
knowledge, experience, problem-solving skills,
and judgment is necessary in order to be a
competent clinical pharmacist. Clinical problem
solving and decision making are the processes by
which patient-specific data are collected,
interpreted, and analyzed; medical problems are
assessed; current drug therapy is evaluated; and
therapeutic plans are developed. These processes
are critical to optimizing medication therapy.
Clinical pharmacists must be able to identify
patient problems, implement and manage patient
pharmacotherapy, dispense and administer
medications as needed, educate patients, monitor
drug therapy, and consult with other patient care
providers to improve patient outcomes.
Although monitoring of therapy is often taught
as the final step in the patient care process, it
must occur before, during, and after the start of
drug therapy. To effectively monitor therapy, the
clinical pharmacist must be able to collect and
interpret patient data from a variety of sources.
Recognizing and identifying important
information, and then interpreting and analyzing
it in the context of complex clinical situations,
require practice and repetition. Only after
sufficient experience is acquired can a clinician
know which situation demands urgent attention
and which merely requires ongoing monitoring.
Although students often associate monitoring
with a list of specific parameters to follow in
patients who have particular medical problems or
who are receiving specific therapies, patient
monitoring is actually much more complex. It is
an active, ongoing process of patient assessment
that promotes changes in therapy in order to
optimize therapeutic outcomes and avoid or
correct drug-related problems. Only after a
clinical pharmacist has cared for many patients in
a variety of situations will he or she be able to
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PHARMACOTHERAPY Volume 28, Number 6, 2008
monitor patients efficiently and effectively.
Similarly, assessing medical problems is an
important clinical ability that must be developed
and practiced. Although pharmacists are not
responsible directly for establishing a patient’s
medical diagnosis, it is essential that the
pharmacist be able to define patient-specific
problems and effectively evaluate current therapy
for those problems. Hence, clinical pharmacists
cannot focus only on medications, but must take
into account all patient-specific medical
problems as well.
Designing and individualizing comprehensive
drug therapy regimens also requires clinical
experience. Observing patient-specific responses
to medications is critical to anticipating potential
outcomes of initiating and adjusting drug
therapy. Sound clinical judgment should be
based on a combination of in-depth knowledge of
diseases, expertise in drug therapy, and practical
experience involving patients’ use of medications.
Collaborating with patients, caregivers, and
other health professionals is another essential
ability that deserves attention. Clinical
pharmacists must be able to work with patients
and other health care professionals to determine
which treatments will best meet the patient’s
therapeutic needs. They must understand their
roles, and the roles of collaborators, in the
clinical problem-solving process.
Communication and Education
The ability to effectively communicate with
and educate patients and health care professionals
is integral to ensuring optimal patient
outcomes. As with other abilities, communication
is developed and refined throughout a
pharmacist’s career. Communicating with
patients and other health professionals about a
particular issue at the appropriate level of
complexity can be challenging, and pharmacists
must be aware of barriers to effective communication.
Because effective communication and
education are so fundamental to the provision of
patient care, it is imperative that these abilities be
well developed.
The clinical pharmacist must identify those
issues that are particularly pertinent for patients
and physicians to help optimize drug therapy.
Providing accurate information alone is not
sufficient. As with clinical problem solving,
experience and judgment are required to
advocate for a needed intervention or change in
therapy. The same recommendation that was
rejected when delivered by a pharmacy student
or resident may be accepted when delivered by
an experienced clinician. Also, in communicating
with patients, a monologue of detailed information
can serve to confuse rather than educate.
Assessment of a patient’s level of understanding,
identification of issues important to the patient,
and delivery of information and advice in an
understandable fashion are necessary.
Written communication is also important. One
of the core tenets of clinical pharmacy is
assuming responsibility for patient care.2, 11 Like
other health care providers, it is the clinical
pharmacist’s responsibility to document
medication reconciliation, clinical problemsolving
activities, therapeutic interventions, and
patient education activities in the medical record.
Although this may appear to be a relatively easy
task, experience is required to know what
information to include and how to communicate
it in a manner appropriate for the patient medical
record. As with verbal communication, practice
is required to become proficient at writing notes
in the medical record.
Medical Information Evaluation and
Management
Providing quality patient care requires a
knowledge base that is continuously expanding
and being updated. A clinical pharmacist must
be able to identify situations beyond his or her
own expertise or that require new information to
reach a decision. This necessitates carefully
defining the question and using a variety of
information sources to derive the answer. New
information is then incorporated into one’s
existing knowledge base and integrated with
prior clinical experiences to help develop sound
clinical judgment.
Of course, young clinicians, students, and
residents can sometimes become discouraged
when they realize how much they do not know.
However, recognizing the limits of one’s
knowledge base is an important step in the
development of a mature clinician. Experience
with a wide variety of information resources is
essential. The new clinician may rely heavily on
a limited number of resources rather than
identifying the best sources of information for a
given question. Fortunately, this skill is readily
developed over time.
The clinical pharmacist must keep abreast of
current medical and therapeutic information. A
strong foundational knowledge base must first be
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CLINICAL PHARMACIST COMPETENCIES ACCP
developed so that new information can be readily
combined with prior knowledge. Students and
trainees often lack the clinical experience
necessary to recognize new information that
should be incorporated into their knowledge
base. Skills in interpreting and evaluating
biomedical literature assist the clinical pharmacist
in effectively integrating new information with
prior knowledge. These skills, which are often
discounted as unimportant by students and
trainees, provide the basis not only for keeping
up with the literature but also for making
evidence-based decisions.
Management of Patient Populations
Many clinical pharmacists not only are
involved in providing care to individual patients,
but work within a health system or other
organization to develop protocols and critical
pathways that optimize the care of patient
populations. These efforts may include analyzing
drug utilization evaluations, composing protocols
for disease state management, and developing
organizational policies and procedures that
improve patient care and resource utilization.9, 10
For instance, the Institute of Medicine has
highlighted the importance of identifying
processes within health systems that can
predispose to medication errors.19, 20 Clinical
pharmacists can apply their therapeutic
knowledge and clinical experience to identify
and correct problems that contribute to adverse
events in patients. This may involve the
collection and evaluation of information regarding
how a particular medication or class of medications
is being used such that changes can be
implemented to improve care. Drug therapy
protocols can be developed to ensure the proper
use and monitoring of medications. A clinical
pharmacist must possess sufficient experience
and clinical judgment in the care of individual
patients to effectively contribute to this process.
Clinical pharmacists routinely contribute to
the development and implementation of critical
pathways.9, 10 Because critical pathways are
evidence based, the clinical pharmacist must be
able to recognize and interpret relevant
biomedical literature to formulate and justify
valid drug therapy recommendations. Educating
others about a critical pathway requires an indepth
understanding of the pathway, the
evidence on which it is based, and the clinical
implications for both health care professionals
and patients. These skills are clearly beyond
those acquired in a doctor of pharmacy program
and require development during postgraduate
training and practice.
Therapeutic Knowledge
Clinical pharmacists must possess a therapeutic
knowledge base of sufficient breadth and depth
to effectively promote rational medication use.
Appendix 1 includes a list of diseases and
pharmacotherapeutic principles intended to serve
as a guideline for the identification, assessment,
and development of clinical pharmacist competencies.
In general, to be considered a clinical
pharmacist, one must be sufficiently knowledgeable
about the diseases and principles in this
list to effectively assess and treat these problems
in the patient population one serves. It is
important to emphasize that a clinical pharmacist
must be competent in the therapeutic management
of the many disease states that may affect a
given patient, not simply those currently
identified as active problems. To optimize a
patient’s therapy, the clinical pharmacist must be
able to identify and solve new problems as they
arise.
Doctor of pharmacy degree programs provide
broad but relatively superficial coverage of
disease states, pharmacotherapy, and general
therapeutic principles. The PGY1 residencies are
structured to deepen one’s knowledge of many
disease states, provide a supervised environment
for the application of this knowledge, and
promote the development of patient care skills
and clinical judgment. Although preferred, a
PGY1 residency is not the only way to develop
the required skills and knowledge to be a clinical
pharmacist. However, the content and structure
of a residency should serve as a model for
individuals seeking to become clinical pharmacists
but who are unable to pursue formal residency
training.
Although some clinical pharmacists may
distinguish themselves by developing a
subspecialty area of expertise (e.g., cardiology,
infectious diseases), the maintenance of a sound
foundation of therapeutic knowledge over a wide
range of topics is necessary to meet their professional
demands. Other clinical pharmacists may
have a practice that focuses on a specific patient
population (e.g., pediatrics). A list of therapeutic
knowledge areas with similar breadth and depth
to that described in Appendix 1 could be
identified for those clinical pharmacists.
Recognizing that such knowledge will grow and
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PHARMACOTHERAPY Volume 28, Number 6, 2008
evolve with changes in medicine, the guiding
principle is that a clinical pharmacist who
possesses a sufficient breadth and depth of
therapeutic knowledge and experience is capable
of comprehensively managing pharmacotherapy
in the patient population he or she serves. If an
individual’s knowledge is limited to a few
therapeutic classes of drugs, one’s experience and
clinical judgment will also be limited. This
paper’s goal is not to provide a definitive
checklist of knowledge areas, but rather to
characterize the breadth of knowledge minimally
required for clinical practice.
Conclusion
These competency statements represent a
current assessment of the requisite knowledge
and skills of an individual actively engaged in the
practice of clinical pharmacy. The knowledge
areas describe the breadth of knowledge
necessary for practitioners to provide appropriate
levels of care for patients. Changes and advances
in medicine will require periodic reevaluation
and modification of therapeutic knowledge areas.
Although there may be multiple paths for the
development of clinical competence, further
clarification of both the ideal career path and
means to assess competence are needed. Then,
once a practitioner has developed these competencies,
methods and processes for self-assessment
of clinical competence can be used to guide
continuous professional development.
References
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Appendix 1. Clinical Pharmacist Competencies
I. Clinical problem solving, judgment, and decision making
A. Monitor patients in the health care setting.
1. Collect patient-specific data to identify problems
and individualize care.
2. Perform relevant physical assessment.
3. Interview patient, family, and other health care
professionals to complement patient’s medical
history, medication therapy history, and review of
systems.
4. Identify additional data needed.
5. Identify patient specific goals of therapy.
6. Prospectively develop a plan for ongoing evaluation
of progression of disease, development of diseaserelated
complications, efficacy of drug therapy, and
development of drug-related adverse effects.
B. Assess patient-specific medical problems.
1. Organize, interpret, and analyze patient-specific data.
2. Synthesize patient data to form an assessment.
3. Develop a comprehensive medical problem list.
4. Assess the status, etiology, risk factors, and
complications of the patient’s medical problems.
5. Prioritize medical problems based on urgency and
severity.
6. Identify preventive and health maintenance issues.
7. Persuasively communicate a justification for one’s
assessment.
C. Evaluate patient-specific drug therapy and therapeutic
problems.
1. Evaluate the appropriateness of drug therapy,
including the choice of drug, and the dose, route,
frequency, and duration of therapy.
2. Evaluate the efficacy of current drug therapy.
3. Identify potential or actual drug-induced adverse
effects.
4. Identify potential or actual drug interactions.
5. Identify contraindications to therapy.
6. Identify untreated problems.
7. Assess patient compliance and factors that may
influence compliance.
D. Design a comprehensive drug therapy plan for patientspecific
problems.
1. Select nonpharmacologic therapeutic measures.
2. Select optimal drug, dose, route, frequency, and
duration of therapy.
3. Select strategies for prevention of disease.
4. Incorporate the significance of potential drug
interactions and adverse effects into the
recommended plan.
5. Persuasively justify recommendations based on
patient-specific pharmacologic, pharmacokinetic,
pharmacodynamic, pharmacogenomic,
pharmacoeconomic, ethical, legal, and evidencebased
information.
E. Collaborate with patients, caregivers, and other health
care professionals.
1. Take responsibility for patient care duties.
2. Reliably complete tasks and assignments.
3. Manage time appropriately to be well prepared for
clinical activities.
Appendix 1. (continued)
II. Communication and education
A. Educate patients.
1. Identify appropriate patient educational needs.
2. Recognize patient education barriers.
3. Use appropriate educational methods to educate
patients regarding drug therapy.
4. Use language appropriate for the patient.
5. Assess patient’s level of knowledge and skill
acquisition.
B. Educate other health care professionals.
1. Identify the educational needs of health care
professionals.
2. Establish rapport with other health care
professionals.
3. Communicate recommendations or relevant
information to health care professionals in a
manner appropriate to their training, skills, and
needs.
4. Provide background information and primary
literature to health care professionals as needed.
C. Communicate effectively.
1. Effectively communicate at a level appropriate to
the audience.
2. Interpret verbal and nonverbal cues.
3. Use specific, clear, and appropriate terminology.
4. Maintain appropriate eye contact.
5. Communicate in an organized, logical, and concise
manner.
6. Display an appropriate level of confidence.
7. Demonstrate tact.
8. Answer questions clearly and completely.
D. Document interventions in the patient medical record.
1. Clearly document drug therapy reconciliation and
other patient-related interventions.
2. Effectively communicate assessment, including
supporting subjective and objective data.
3. Effectively communicate the therapeutic plan.
III.Medical information evaluation and management
A. Demonstrate the motivation and commitment to
become a lifelong learner.
1. Effectively self-assess knowledge and limitations.
2. Define the question to be answered or problem to
be solved.
3. Demonstrate habits of self-learning.
B. Retrieve biomedical literature using appropriate search
strategies.
C. Interpret biomedical literature with regard to study
design, methodology, statistical analysis, significance
of reported data, and conclusions.
D. Integrate data obtained from multiple sources to derive
an overall conclusion or answer.
814 PHARMACOTHERAPY Volume 28, Number 6, 2008
Appendix 1. (continued)
IV.Management of patient populations
A. Patient safety and drug therapy evaluation6, 8
1. Collect data to characterize or identify health
system–related problems in providing optimal
health care.
2. Interpret data to characterize health system–related
problems.
3. Design a plan to improve the delivery and quality of
pharmacotherapy.
4. Develop a justification for and garner support for
implementation of the plan.
5. Design measures to monitor the success of the plan
during and following implementation.
6. Collaborate to implement the plan.
7. Monitor the plan and implement appropriate
modifications.
8. Educate appropriate audiences on results of health
system–related pharmacotherapy problem
assessment and recommended solutions.
B. Critical pathways9, 10
1. Identify diagnoses, procedures, or drugs that
involve high risk, high patient volume, high process
variability, and/or high cost.
2. Select a multidisciplinary health care team based on
likelihood of involvement in the pathway.
3. Identify appropriate outcome measures based on
review of the current medical literature and
assessment of current processes.
4. Document processes and outcomes for current
practice and compare with current literature-based
standards (benchmarking).
5. Elucidate discrepancies between current literaturebased
standards and current practice.
6. Develop the pathway with clearly defined goals and
outcomes, patient education criteria, patient safety
documentation, and monitoring.
V. Therapeutic knowledge areas6
A. Apply disease-oriented knowledge of the following
areas.
1. Anatomy, physiology, and pathophysiology
2. Epidemiology, etiology, risk factors, and signs and
symptoms
3. Natural course and prognosis
4. Laboratory and diagnostic test interpretation
B. Demonstrate competence in the pharmacotherapy of
the following medical problems.
1. Bone and joint
a. Degenerative joint disease
b. Osteoporosis
c. Gout
2. Cardiovascular
a. Hypertension
b. Heart failure
c. Coronary artery disease
d. Acute coronary syndromes
e. Atrial fibrillation
f. Thromboembolic disorders
g. Dyslipidemias
h. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
i. Peripheral arterial disease
j. Shock (hypovolemic, cardiogenic, and septic)
k. Stroke
Appendix 1. (continued)
3. Dermatologic
a. Acne
b. Urticaria
c. Psoriasis
d. Eczema
4. Endocrine
a. Diabetes mellitus
b. Hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism
c. Adrenal disorders
d. Hormonal contraception
5. Gastrointestinal
a. Gastroesophageal reflux disease
b. Nausea and vomiting
c. Stress ulcer disease
d. Peptic ulcer disease
e. Upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage
f. Hepatitis
g. Cirrhosis
h. Pancreatitis
i. Inflammatory bowel disease
j. Cholelithiasis
k. Diarrhea and constipation
6. Genitourinary
a. Prostate hypertrophy
b. Urinary incontinence
7. Hematologic
a. Anemias
b. Clotting factor deficiencies
c. Sickle cell disease
d. Disseminated intravascular coagulopathy
e. Thrombocytopenias
8. Immunologic
a. Hypersensitivity reactions
b. Allergic rhinitis
c. Organ transplantation
d. Human immunodeficiency syndrome
9. Infectious diseases
a. Meningitis
b. Endocarditis
c. Fungal infections
d. Gastrointestinal infection
e. Intraabdominal infection
f. Opportunistic infection
g. Osteomyelitis
h. Otitis media
i. Peritonitis
j. Pneumonia
k. Prostatitis
l. Septic arthritis
m. Sexually transmitted diseases
n. Sinusitis
o. Skin and soft tissue infections
p. Surgical prophylaxis
q. Tuberculosis
r. Upper respiratory tract infections
s. Urinary tract infections
t. Viral infections
CLINICAL PHARMACIST COMPETENCIES ACCP 815
Appendix 1. (continued)
10.Neurologic
a. Epilepsy, status epilepticus
b. Pain management
c. Stroke
d. Headache, migraine
e. Peripheral neuropathy
f. Parkinson’s disease
g. Dementia
h. Delirium
11.Oncologic
a. Melanoma
b. Breast cancer
c. Colorectal cancer
d. Leukemia
e. Lung cancer
f. Lymphoma
g. Prostate cancer
12.Psychiatric
a. Drug and alcohol abuse
b. Anxiety disorders
c. Attention-deficit–hyperactivity disorder
d. Depressive disorders
e. Schizophrenia
f. Bipolar disorders
13.Pulmonary
a. Asthma
b. Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
c. Respiratory distress syndrome
d. Respiratory failure
e. Cystic fibrosis
f. Pulmonary hypertension
14.Renal
a. Acute renal failure
b. Chronic renal failure
c. Renal replacement therapies (hemodialysis,
peritoneal dialysis, continuous renal
replacement)
d. Nephrolithiasis
e. Glomerulonephritis
f. Fluid and electrolyte disorders
15.Rheumatologic
a. Polymyositis
b. Scleroderma
c. Systemic lupus erythematosus
d. Sarcoidosis
e. Rheumatoid arthritis
Appendix 1. (continued)
C. Apply the following principles in the setting of each
disease state, patient population, and/or therapeutic
category.
1. Pharmacokinetics
2. Pharmacodynamics
3. Pharmacoeconomics
4. Pharmacogenomics
5. Toxicology
6. Empiric antibiotic therapy
7. Health screening
8. Health maintenance
9. Drug interactions (drug-disease, drug-drug, druglaboratory,
drug-nutrient)
10.Nondrug therapies and nonprescription remedies
11.Herbal products
12.Immunizations
13.Geriatric considerations
14.Pediatric considerations
15.Nutrition (enteral and parenteral)
16.Fluids, electrolytes, acid-base balance |
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